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Journal of the ICRU 2009 9(1):71-104; doi:10.1093/jicru/ndp010
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© International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements 2009

7. Quantitative Ultrasound

The first 150 words of the full text of this article appear below.

7.1 Introduction

As described in Sections 5 and 6, reference methods for the assessment of skeletal status are based on x-ray absorptiometry, or to be more precise on a two-dimensional or three-dimensional image mapping of the x-ray absorption coefficient, which can then be translated into a areal bone mineral density (BMDa) or a bone mineral density (BMD) image. In addition, certain geometrical parameters may be extracted given constraints of spatial resolution and other limitations discussed in the corresponding sections above. While BMD is an important predictor of bone strength, additional parameters are required to explain strength more accurately. These include tissue-intrinsic material properties and bone structure.

In comparison to absorptiometry, ultrasound is more complex. As will be discussed in this chapter, quantitative ultrasound . . . [Full Text of this Article]

7.2 Physics of Ultrasound Relevant for the Characterization of Bone

7.2.1 Fundamentals of Ultrasound
7.2.1.1 Frequency–Period–Wavelength
7.2.1.2 Phase Velocity–Group Velocity
7.2.1.3 Stress
7.2.1.4 Acoustic Impedance
7.2.1.5 Intensity
7.2.1.6 Speed of Sound
Fluids
Infinite Isotropic Homogeneous Elastic Solids
Infinite Anisotropic Homogeneous Elastic Solids
Finite Homogeneous Elastic Solids
Inhomogeneous Elastic Solids
7.2.2 Tissue Interaction
7.2.2.1 Specular Reflection and Refraction
Fluid–Fluid Interface
Fluid–Solid Interface
7.2.2.2 Attenuation
Scattering
Tissue Penetration
7.3 Principles of Data Acquisition and Signal Processing

7.3.1 Transverse Transmission
7.3.1.1 Broadband Ultrasound Attenuation
7.3.1.2 Speed of Sound
7.3.2 Axial Transmission
7.4 Equipment

7.4.1 Transverse Transmission of the Heel
7.4.1.1 Parameters
7.4.1.2 Water-Based Devices
7.4.1.3 Dry Contact Devices
7.4.1.4 Fixed Versus Moving Transducers
7.4.1.5 Imaging Devices
7.4.2 Transverse Transmission of the Finger Phalanges
7.4.3 Axial Transmission
7.5 Performance Measures

7.5.1 Trueness
7.5.1.1 Diffraction
7.5.1.2 Phase Cancellation
7.5.1.3 Algorithms
7.5.1.4 Soft Tissue and Cortical Endplates
7.5.1.5 Incorrect ROI Positioning
7.5.2 Imprecision
7.5.2.1 Coupling
7.5.2.2 Temperature
7.5.2.3 Soft Tissue
7.5.2.4 Patient Position and Movement
7.5.2.5 Operator
7.5.2.6 Recommendations to Improve Precision
7.6 QUS Variables Related to Bone Strength

7.6.1 Solution of Direct and Inverse Problems
7.6.1.1 Cortical Bone
Axial Transmission
Transverse Transmission through Phalanges
7.6.1.2 Cancellous Bone
7.6.1.3 Conclusion
7.6.2 Experimental Results
7.6.2.1 Cortical Bone
7.6.2.2 Cancellous Bone
7.6.2.3 Reflection Techniques

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